TechnologyCharacteristics

Distance Learning Technology Characteristics

What is Distance Learning?
California Distance Learning Project

What is Distance Education? at Penn State

ITC's Definition of Distance Education

Distance Education
Marina Stock McIsaac & Charlotte Nirmalani Gunawardena

Terminology

     Synchronous conferencing
     Asynchronous conferencing
     Interaction :
          Instructor to student
          student to content
          student to student
     Access
     Bandwidth <http://www.utexas.edu/cc/cit/de/deprimer/glossary.html#bgloss>
     Digital        <http://www.utexas.edu/cc/cit/de/deprimer/glossary.html#dgloss>

Internet - World Wide Web

A worldwide network of computers comprised of many smaller networks that are all interlinked.

Arnold, Michael (1997) Using the Web to Augment Teaching and Learning
http://www.curtin.edu.au:80/conference/ASCILITE97/papers/Arnold/Arnold.html

Brown, Allison and Thompson, Herb (1997) Course Design for the WWW -
Keeping Online Students
http://www.curtin.edu.au:80/conference/ASCILITE97/papers/Brown/Brown.html

Darbyshire, Paul and Wenn, Andrew (1997) Managing Subjects Using
the Internet
http://www.curtin.edu.au:80/conference/ASCILITE97/papers/Darbyshire/Darbyshire.html

Gabany, Steve. G. (1997) Putting a Class up on the Web
http://www.ihets.org/learntech/distance_ed/fdpapers/1997/gabany.html

Gilbert, Kathleen R. (1997) Teaching With the Internet
http://www.ihets.org/learntech/distance_ed/fdpapers/1997/gilbert.html

Kerka, Sandra (1996) Distance Learning, the Internet, and the World Wide Web.
http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed395214.html

McInerney, William D. (1997) Learning to Teach Via the Internet
http://www.ihets.org/learntech/distance_ed/fdpapers/1997/mcinerny.html

Pickering, John (1995) Teaching on the Internet is Learning
http://www.cti.ac.uk/publ/actlea/issue2/pickering/

Slay, Jill (1997) The Use of the Internet in Creating an Effective Learning
Environment
http://ausweb.scu.edu.au/aw99_archive/aw99/proceedings/slay/paper.html

Whalley, W Brian (1995) Teaching and learning on the Internet
http://www.cti.ac.uk/publ/actlea/issue2/whalley/

Characteristics

Supports various levels of multi-media communication
Accessibility is increasing while the costs are decreasing
Easy to use. Technology requires minimal training and support
Readily accessible. Uses regular phone lines, network connections or
ISDN lines.
Data exchange can be passive or interactive
Learners are in control of when and where they study

Advantages

          A comprehensive network infrastructure allowing for communication of
          computers anywhere
          Large numbers can access information simultaneously
          Students can reread material if necessary and proceed at their own pace
          Users can access course materials when it is convenient
          Users can be more anonymous, creating a degree of equality
          Free Internet access is now available

Limitations

          Initial investment and reoccurring costs can be costly
          Students need Internet access through a provider
          Researching online can be time intensive
          Information may be inaccurate or offensive
          The quality of Web pages varies: students must evaluate materials
          Technical problems can disconnect users from source.

Tech Tips

     Connection speed will affect access time
     Processing power of the computer will affect access time
     Computability is an on going issue, things are changing rapidly and
     software and hardware upgrades are needed to keep up

Programmatic Issues

     Technology considerations and the material to be presented
     Teaching styles
     Learning styles
     Degree and type of interaction

Interactive Video Conferencing
<http://www.utexas.edu/cc/cit/de/deprimer/tech-video.html>

Videoconferencing for Learning
http://www.kn.pacbell.com/wired/vidconf/
Using Compressed Video for Distance Learning
http://www.kn.pacbell.com/wired/vidconf/Using.html

Bull, Gina Videoconferencing and Desktop Collaboration
http://jm.acs.virginia.edu/netsys/videoconf/vr-sec1.html#Table of Contents

Coventry, Lynne Video Conferencing in Higher Education
http://www.agocg.ac.uk/reports/mmedia/video3/contents.htm

Reed, Jodi and Woodruff, Merry An Introduction to Using Videoconferencing
Technology for Teaching
http://waltoncollege.uark.edu/disted/an_introduction_to_using_videoco.htm

Real Time, Interactive Video Conferencing
http://www.rcc.ryerson.ca/learnontario/idnm/mod5/mod5-11/mod5-1146.htm

Synchronous Communication
http://www.rcc.ryerson.ca/learnontario/idnm/mod1/mod1-4/mod1-423.htm

Effective Communication Considerations When Teaching on Interactive
Videoconferencing
http://www.iddl.vt.edu/facserv/delivery/ivc/consider.html

Practical guidelines for teaching with video conferencing
http://www.jtap.ac.uk/reports/htm/jtap-037.html

Blueprint for Interactive Classrooms http://www.avd.kuleuven.ac.be/bic/

Video Conferencing in Education: Meeting Teachers and Learners Support and
Training Needs
http://www.man.ac.uk/MVC/SIMA/video4/title.html

Video Conferencing Cookbook http://www.vide.gatech.edu/cookbook2.0/

Video Conferencing Cookbook
http://sunsite.utk.edu/video_cookbook/intro.html
http://sunsite.utk.edu/video_cookbook/printIE.html

Strategies for Effective Teaching: Using Interactive Video in the Distance
        Education Classroom: All You Ever Wanted to Know before You Knew
        You Needed to Know
       http://www.cren.net/~jboettch/interact.htm

Desktop Video Conferencing
http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/dp_iet-edtech/TechforTeaching/desktopvideoconferencing.htm

Often referred to as compressed video or two-way video. An Interactive video
conference between 2 or more locations with live image transmission

Characteristics

Simultaneous voice and visual interaction
Requires high speed connections and video codec
Video resolution is less than television
Motion compensation causes some blurriness when images move or camera
     pans
Can be relatively easy to use with practice.
     Requires site support and training at all locations
Useful for group communication and cooperative learning
   Allows visiting "electronic lecturers"

Advantages

Satellites have a large 'footprint' that typically covers the continental US.
There is a sizable potential audience who might want to take courses not
otherwise available.

Learners can hear and see each other.
There is an improved degree of humanization over audio conferencing
     and Internet classes.
Nonverbal feedback is possible making it easier for students and teachers
     to fully understand each other.
A variety of inputs can be used: camera, computer, slides, videotape.
     These can help break up a lecture and add visual interest.
Some students prefer Distance Learning to having to travel to a campus.
H320 standards

Limitations

Instructors need to avoid becoming a talking head.
Learners may view the teacher impersonally.
Some teachers may not pay as much attention to distant learners as
to those in class.
Teachers may not take as much time to ask questions.
It may be difficult to manage group work from a distance.
Lower resolution video limits detail
Some students may be uncomfortable being on camera
Good quality audio may be difficult to achieve
It may be difficult to determine who is speaking at the distant site.
Technical support should be available at all sites
The costs of developing a class will include preparing teaching materials,
training staff, classroom conversions - not just transmission.

Transponders are expensive. Uplink facilities are expensive.
Receiving sites will need a satellite dish capable of receiving the signal
from your transponder. Not all dishes are steerable; not all dishes can receive
both Ku and C band, the most common satellite signals.
It is necessary to consider to equipment and technical staff available at
receiving sites

Transponder time is expensive -- ranging from $200 to $800 per hour --
some satellite based video conferencing is done with one-way video and
two-way audio.

Tech Tips

While it is interactive video, good quality audio is still the most important
In addition to special lines, rooms usually require fax lines and phone lines
Common bandwidths
          112K, using switch 56 service
          128K , using ISDN service
          1/4 T (336K or 384K)
          1/2 T
          Full T, 1.5K
          DS-3 or full fiber at 45 Mbs

Costs

     Costs are based on bandwidth used, time of day, distance called and
     the telecommunications provider you use. Low bandwidth (112K or 128K)
     costs $10-$25 per hour, per location. Full T may range from $55-$125
     per hour. Codec -- $20,000 - 30,000 (Moore and Kearsley)
     Codecs for personal computers -- $3,000 - 5,000

Audio Conferencing
<http://www.utexas.edu/cc/cit/de/deprimer/tech-audio.html>

Instructional Audio http://www.uidaho.edu/evo/dist6.html

Audio Conferencing Web Site
http://www.ctem.uwstout.edu/cet/hartz/web/TS1/Group_research/audioconf/index.html

What is Audio Conferencing http://home.istar.ca/~djcote/audio/definitions.htm

Audio Conferencing
http://www.ctem.uwstout.edu/~hartz/TS1/Group_research/economics/audioconferencing.htm

Halhed, Basil Audioconferencing: Decisions from Afar
http://www.telecoms-mag.com/marketing/articles/jun95/juniaudi.html

A widely used distance learning technology that connects individuals and
groups using telephone connections for audio interaction.

Characteristics

Low cost
Easy to use
Readily accessible
Audio only, no visual component
Groups of people can talk and multiple locations can be combined through
bridge

Advantages

The advantages of using audio conferencing are significant:

The telephone system is readily available.
The technology is reliable and easy to use.
Audio conferencing can be used to transmit a variety of course content,
especially when the audio conferencing is supplemented with print materials
or Internet based resources.
Travel time is reduced
Groups can conference
Good quality audio can be very interactive

Limitations

Participants do not have the advantage of nonverbal feedback
People may not feel comfortable speaking into microphones
It may be difficult to communicate complex information

The frequency response of the telephone signal is not high-fidelity
Telephone signals can be noisy. This may necessitate redialing,
Listening to a noisy signal fatigues the learner.

As the number of sites increases, the cost of long-distance increases.
While a few sites can be easily connected using a simple conference call, a more
sophisticated and flexible capability requires the use of a telephone bridge and
the installation of more line capacity, the cost of which can range from a few
thousand dollars to the tens of thousands.
Any site that has more than one person should be outfitted with a convener.

Audio - Tech Tips

     Point to point is relatively easy, multipoint may require a bridge
     Establish audio protocols
     Large conferences may take a long time to form -> meet me option?
     Most conferencing equipment requires a separate phone line
     If participants get disconnected, there should be a plan

Costs

     Time of day, where you are calling, and how long you talk affects the cost.
     Connect to multiple sites requires a bridge.
     Commercial providers offer different services. Cost vary from $10-$25 per
     hour plus line charges.

Discussion

With Internet courses, Interactive Video Conferencing, and Audio
Conferencing, there are two areas that teachers and administrators will
want to look at closely. Does the technology approximate face to face
instruction, and will it be cost effective. The first issue is important
because students a accustomed to traditional classes and may find those
classes closest to what they are used to to be the most satisfying. Surveys
of students indicate that one factor contributing to student satisfaction
is the level of interaction with the teacher and with other students.
Interactive Video Conferencing should provide the most opportunities
for interaction, and it most closely approximates face to face instruction.
Audio Conferencing does not allow students and teachers to see each
other, but they are able to discuss course material. Although Internet
courses are the least like traditional courses, they do enable students
to work according to their own schedules. This provides many students
with opportunities to enroll in classes they might not otherwise be able
to schedule. Even though students and teachers may not see each other,
there are opportunities for interaction. Teachers need to pay close
attention to including assignments will encourage interaction among
students.

Personally, I have been satisfied with the quality of the online courses
I have taken. The Internet provides access to far more information than
I had available as an undergraduate before the Web existed. Like others,
I enjoy being able to work according to my schedule. In fact, I wouldn't
be able to take courses in the Instructional Technology program if they
were all on campus. At times, I would like to be able to spend more time
discussing topics with others in class. For that reason, I would imagine
that many students might prefer Interactive Video Conferencing.
Not having taken an Audio Conferencing course, I don't have sufficient
experience to determine how effective it might be. However, if I wanted
a course with more interaction, I would prefer Interactive Video
Conferencing since I would be able to get a better sense of reaction
from others in class.

For administrators, costs will be a key issue. With the costs to maintain
a school continuing to increase, administrators will want to consider
which technologies will provide courses which are equal to traditional
classes in quality but can be developed at a reasonable cost. From this
point of view, Internet classes are the most cost effective. Once a course
has been developed, it can be reused with occasional fine tuning.
The development of Internet courses may present a sizable expense if
the courses are the result of the combined efforts of teachers, content
experts, instructional designers, etc. Technology costs are minimal, and
Internet access is expanding rapidly. Audio conferencing requires more
investment in technology, but costs are fairly reasonable. A sizable
investment in equipment, training, and classroom renovation will be
necessary to make Interactive Video Conferencing successful. Costs may
be prohibitive for school with limited resources.

As Moore and Kearsley point out "each medium has its strengths and
weaknesses, and these should be matched to the nature of the learning
setting." (p. 95) Internet classes are not necessarily as interactive as
Interactive Video Conferencing or Audio Conferencing, but interaction
can be built in using E-mail and discussion boards. Internet classes
possess the advantage of being asynchronous and allowing learners to
study around their schedules. Interactive Video Conferencing or Audio
Conferencing are more interactive, but costs are a larger consideration,
and course development may take longer. Because of the reliance on
audio and video equipment, there may be periodic technical difficulties.
Depending on the individual's learning style, some students will prefer
feeling like members of a group in a Video Conferencing class, while
more independent learners will find Internet classes satisfying.

When deciding on which media will be most effective course
developers should:
1. Identify the media attributes required by the instructional objectives
or learning activities.
2. Identify the student characteristics which suggest or preclude certain
media.
3. Identify characteristics of the learning environment which favor or
preclude certain media.
4. Identify economic or organizational factors which may affect the
feasibility of certain media.
Moore and Kearsley p. 97

For all Distance Learning courses, it is necessary to prepare students
with an orientation session so that they will clearly understand what
their responsibilities are. Students need to be aware of any hardware
requirements and computer competencies. Students need to realize that
technical problems will occur. Clear guidelines should be established to
ensure that students can ask questions, get assistance, and communicate
with the instructor and with each other. Students should be encouraged
to interact.

Blackboard

Even though Blackboard does have a professional look, I see few
advantages over Web pages. While I must admit that I'm used to
Web pages, I like being able to design my own pages. Some students
will certainly like the menu arrangement, but a similar format can be
developed using frames in HTML. The chief advantage for teachers
is that they don't need to learn HTML since Blackboard is prepackaged.
I'm perfectly satisfied with our regular Web site. In the External Links
section, I got irritated whenever I tried to connect and the password
box popped up. Error Level 401 came up a couple times.

Audiographic Conferencing

A distance education application which uses a combination of telephone and
computer technology.

Telephone connections provide voice interaction while computers allow the
sharing of visuals and collaborative work.

Characteristics

Simultaneous voice and visual interaction
Low cost - transmission and hardware
Very accessible. Uses 2 phone lines or 1 phone line and an Internet connection
Fairly easy to use. Technology requires training and support at all locations
High resolution images in many formats
Electronic whiteboard and annotation capabilities

Advantages

          Many of the same as audio conferencing
          Peer to Peer
          Many file formats supported
          Image files can be transferred
          Computer quality images
          Complex ideas easily developed

Limitations

          Many the same as audio conferencing
          Computer equipment and software require setup
          Significant time preparing images
          Multipoint requires a data bridge in addition to audio bridge

Tech Tips

     Training and content development must be done in advance
     Even when 1 phone line and the Internet is available for connections, an
     alternate phone line for data line backup is advisable
     Back up plan is audio supported by appropriate handouts - plan ahead.
     Conferencing sessions can be backed up on videotape.

Costs

     Costs are determined by provider, length of conference and the number of
     sites connected
     Bridging - voice -> see audio, data requires a bridge.

Satellite Conference

A conference between different locations using communication links made
between orbiting satellites and various points on Earth. Communications
satellites provide telephone, television, and data services between widely
separated locations such as universities or television stations at different
sites. The satellite has equipment that receives the signals, amplifies them,
and transmits them to earth. Receiving stations then pick up the signals and
provide the communications link.
<http://www.utexas.edu/cc/cit/de/deprimer/glossary.html#sgloss>

One way videoconferencing from an origination site (uplink) to multiple
receive sites (downlinks).

Satellite programs are best used when seeing the participants is not crucial to
the program content or message.

Receive sites interact during the conference via phone or fax.

Characteristics

One way broadcast of audio and video signals which are relayed via a
satellite which orbits the earth
High quality video; broadcast television
One site to many
Signal may be either Ku-band or C-band
Signal may be encrypted or open
Expensive transmission and equipment

Advantages

          special event programs
          videotape recording of program for future use
          fixed costs regardless of the number of locations
          high quality video and audio
          reliable
          supplemental materials sent ahead

Limitations

          transmission quality of signal can be affected by weather
          high production costs
          live broadcast can be affected by technical problems
          transmission costs high
          requires a production studio

Tech Tips

     make sure everyone knows when programs are scheduled
     make sure the production staff knows which transponder the program is on
     Producing a program is a major event - needing a studio, trained production
     personnel and an uplink
     Plan ahead for transponder time
     Downlinked programs are dependent upon good produced programs -
     be sure about the one you are signing up for
     Copyrights are an issue for all locations

Costs

     Uplink costs vary greatly: C- band may be $300-$600 an hour, Ku-band
     may be close to $1000.
     Downlinking program costs vary based upon the length of the program and
     the producer. Programs range from $150 to almost $1000 for a site. Some may
     require per person costs.

Asynchronous Technology

Asynchronous Communication http://www.rcc.ryerson.ca/learnontario/idnm/mod1/mod1-4/mod1-424.htm

Asynchronous technologies are those used to communicate independent of time
and space

Characteristics

Individuals use these technologies when and often, where they want.
An individual can control the pace of learning, to some degree
Promotes reflection before response
Technologies are easy to use
User can revisit content as frequently as they want.

Print
<http://www.utexas.edu/cc/cit/de/deprimer/technology.html#printmedia>

Text and graphics are provided on paper. Print may be used with the other
technologies. Many print documents are being converted into Web pages.

Advantages

Materials are used in an asynchronous way by the learner.
Printed materials are easily handled, transported, and stored.
Desktop publishing allows easy production and revision of print materials.
Mail is relatively inexpensive.

          documents can be read when the learner wants
          print documents incorporate text and pictures
          easily updated and modified, especially if it is in a digital format
          most people read

Limitations

The learner may not receive materials for several days.
Printed documents require more storage space than electronic materials
Printed documents may become outdated and are not easy to update

not interactive with writer in real time
no motion/animation

Tech Tips

     Choose readable fonts and use white space
     Print gets cheaper with increased volume
     make sure printed documents are well organized and easy to follow
     most documents are in black in white -- color is sometimes useful
     mailing costs add up according to volume

Videotape

A storage medium for video and audio with playback capabilities.

Advantages

          accurate recording of real time activity including audio and video
          players, recorders, and cameras are readily available
          reliable
          VHS widely available

Limitations

          graphics require special preparation
          learners are unable to ask questions
          production of high quality video can be expensive
          supplementary printed materials need to be developed

Tech Tips

     For prerecorded videos, determine if permission is needed to make copies
     Copying takes time
     Videotape production requires pre-production of visuals
     videotapes can be damaged and need to be packed and shipped carefully

Audiotape

A storage medium for audio with playback capabilities.

Advantages

          accurate recording of real time audio
          easy to use
          reliable
          easy to transport
          players and recorders are widely available.

Limitations

          only audio
          need to have a player to hear the tape
          can be time consuming if learner has to rewind tape repeatedly
          can be tedious to listen, especially if the production values are poor

Tech Tips

     determine if permission is needed to make copies
     high speed dubbing is available - quality may suffer
     production of high quality audiotapes requires quality microphones and room
     without excessive noise

Electronic Mail (E-Mail)

Messages sent from one person to another via the internet

Advantages

            almost instantaneous
          connections can be made at any time
          messages sent to an individual or to a class
          complex ideas can be discussed
          computer files can often be attached to messages
          multiple messages can be accessed at one time

Limitations

          no pictures, video, or audio unless downloaded as a file
          need computer and mail software, modem or network connection
          response time (to sender and back) may be uncertain.

Tech Tips

     make sure learners are familiar with e-mail programs
     check modem speed -- speeds are improving
     does ISP provide local access or will it be long distance?

Voice Mail

Voice mail has some of the same features as e-mail, except the voice
messages are digitized as audio messages which are left and then retrieved
using a telephone.

Advantages

          access from any phone
          recipient hears the exact message
          recipient hears the tone of the speaker

Limitations

          messages are usually short
          long distance costs add up
          length of voice prompts, when reaching system, can be frustrating

Tech Tips

     Frequently visited boxes should have the quickest access
     How many mail boxes can be supported and how long is the message?
     check out other features such as forwarding messages or switching to
     other boxes

Bulletin Board System - BBS

Advantages

multiple topics or ideas can be discussed concurrently
same advantages as e-mail, with more control and functions

Limitations

          no pictures, video or audio
          need computer with modem or network connections
          on line time can be extensive and expensive
          BBS system requires one line for each connection to it

Tech Tips

     It is relatively easy to use a BBS
     What modem speeds are supported, the faster the better
     BBS is easy to use, but requires a sysop to run one.
     How many lines and modems does your system need

Facsimile or FAX

A technology that allows a document to be scanned in at one site, transmitted
electronically to another location and then printed out at the receiving site

Advantages

          uses POTS lines
          FAX has become a very widespread format available in many locations
          easy to use, requires little training
          text, pictures and graphics can be transmitted.

Limitations

          no video , animation or sound
          must have fax machine at both locations
          quality of copy varies greatly
          usually only black and white
          some fax paper is low quality

Tech Tips

     Is there a fax machine available to the participants
     Plain paper is the best
     Many fax machines can also be a copier, printer, or even a scanner
     If you are using an audio line for faxing, place the phone back on-line ->
     does anyone like the   sound fax machines make?

Suggested Readings

Andrews, Sandy (1996) New and Emerging Technologies in Instruction for the Internet
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/final96/finalsa.html

Auvigne, Shirley (1997) Computer Tools for Distance Education
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/final97/finalsa.html

Barbadillo, Julie (1998) The Distance Education Student
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/week2/8focusjb.html

Barbadillo, Julie (1998) The Theoretical Basis for Distance Education
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/week3/10focsjb.html

Burke, A. Nadine Collaboration = Community (in online courses)
http://waltoncollege.uark.edu/disted/collaboration__community_.htm

Creed, T. (8 Nov. 1996) Extending the classroom walls electronically.
http://www.users.csbsju.edu/~tcreed/techno3.html

Edwards, Karlene (1997) Professional Development on the Web
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/final97/finalke.html

Getter, W. M. Overview of Classroom Teleconferencing Technologies
http://www.zianet.com/getterw/teleconference.html

Grabe, M. & Grabe, C. (1998). Integrating technology for meaningful learning.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Grabe, M. & Grabe, C. (2000). Integrating the internet for meaningful learning.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Greenhill, Valerie (1997) New & Emerging Technologies for Distance
Education: Virtual Reality and Medicine
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/final97/finalvg.html

Harmon, Stephen (1997) Online Mathematics Resources
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/final97/finalsh.html

Hendricks, C. E. and Steer, J. P. Videoconferencing FAQ
http://www.bitscout.com/faqtoc.htm

Heeren, Elske Technology Selection for Small-Group Collaborative
Distance Learning
http://www-cscl95.indiana.edu/cscl95/heeren.html

Hill, Melanie Building a Support System for Distance Learning Students
http://waltoncollege.uark.edu/disted/building_a_support_system_for_di.htm

Isenhour, Philip L. Carroll, John M. Neale,Dennis C. Rosson, Mary Beth &
         Dunlap, Daniel R. (2000) The Virtual School: An integrated collaborative
       environment for the classroom
         http://ifets.massey.ac.nz/periodical/vol_3_2000/a03.html

King, Jill C. and Doerfert, David L. Interaction in the Distance Education Setting
http://www.ssu.missouri.edu/ssu/AgEd/NAERM/s-e-4.htm

Logan, T M (1998) Evolving Video Conferencing Technologies:
New Opportunities for Integration
http://www.educause.edu/ir/library/html/cnc9808/cnc9808.html

Luckenbill, Laurie (1997) Contemporary and Emerging Interactive Technologies
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/final97/finalll.html

McLean, Alistair Newlands, David and Lovie, Fraser Teaching Social Sciences
By Audio Conferencing - The Aberdeen Experience
http://www.hud.ac.uk/schools/human+health/behavioural_science/socinfo/journal/journal1/j1_6.html

Matsunaga, Bruce (1997) Computer Tools for people with disabilities
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/final97/finalbm.html

McConnell, Gloria (1997) Satellite Delivery of Business Education Programs
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/final97/finalgm.html

Miller, Judy K. (1996) Video Tools for Distance Education
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/final96/finaljm.html

Moa, Susan (1997) Copyright and Fair Use: What resources are available?
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/final97/finalsm.html

Monarch, Lee (1996) Copyrights and Distance Education
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/final96/finallm.html

Phelps, John (1997) Using Video in Distance Education
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/final97/finaljp.html

Ralston, Kelvin D. (1997) Distance Education: Theory and Practice
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/disted97/index.htm

Ritchie, Jeffrey (1997) Contemporary and Emerging Interactive Technology
and Virtual Reality
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/final97/finaljr.html

Rodrigues, Dawn (1998) Models of Distance Education for Composition:
The Role of Interactive Video Conferencing
http://english.ttu.edu/kairos/3.2/features/rodrigues/overview.htm

Schreiber, Lori (1997) Business and Education Partnering to provide Distance Education
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/final97/finalls.html

Sherry, Lance (1997) Interactive Technologies for Distance Education of Airline Pilots
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/final97/finallt.html

Sherry, L. (1996). Issues in Distance Learning International Journal of
Educational Telecommunications, 1 (4), 337-365.
http://www.cudenver.edu/~lsherry/pubs/issues.html

Sherry, L., & Morse, R. (1995). An Assessment of Training Needs in the Use of
       Distance Education for Instruction International Journal of Educational
        Telecommunications,1(1), 5-22.
        http://www.cudenver.edu/~lsherry/pubs/needs/index.html

Sherry, L. Public Information Writing
http://www.cudenver.edu/~lsherry/pubs/

Smith, Robin (1996) Contemporary & Emerging Interactive Technologies for
Distance Education
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/final96/finalrs.html

Spodick, Edward F. (1996) The Evolution of Distance Learning
http://sqzm14.ust.hk/distance/evolution-distance-learning.htm

Steig, Jo (1996) Interactive Math on the Internet
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/final96/finaljs.html

Tu, Chih (1996) Video Tools for Distance Education
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/final96/finalct.html

Vissicaro, Pegge (1996) Electronic Print Tools for Distance Education
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/final96/finalpv.html

Walton, Robin (1996) Video Tools for Distance Education
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/final96/finalrw.html

Watson, Jack (1996) Assessing Needs, Developing Instruction, and Evaluating
Results in Distance Education
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/final96/finaljw.html

Widmann, Steve (1996) Disabled People and Computer Access
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/final96/finalsw.html

Winograd, David Mark (1996) Video Tools for Distance Education
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/final96/finaldw.html

Wood, Helen Designing Study Materials for Distance Students
http://waltoncollege.uark.edu/disted/designing_study_materials_for_di.htm

Wu, Chien-Huei (1996) Video Tools for Distance Education
http://seamonkey.ed.asu.edu/~mcisaac/disted/final96/finalcw.html

Distance Education: Theory and Practice Final Projects

Distance Education and Computer-mediated Instruction
Chris Frank, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education

The British Open University Beatriz Sandia

A Definition of Distance and Distributed Learning

Implications of Distance Education as an Agent of Socio-Cultural Change
Scott A. Robbins

CSS Journal Computers in the Social Sciences

Interweaving Face-to-Face Student Contact with an Online Class Presentation Format
Jan-Michelle Sawyer and Mimi Will U of Hawaii-Manoa

Interactive Delivery Systems Distance Education Clearinghouse

Presentations and Presenters
Trends and Issues in Online Instruction 1997

Encyclopedia of Educational Technology

Distance Education Educational Technology

Management, Administration, & Policies

CFCC LAN

VR in Education

Created Sept. 29, 2000 by M. L. Dutch. Last edited Oct. 17, 2000.